Assessment Essays

Assessment Essays Assessment Essay Assessment Essay Essay Topic: Thirteen Reasons Why The function of assessment in Learning and Development Assessment can take part at different stages in Learning and Development and can sometimes be overlooked. ?  In this article, weâ„ ¢ll take a look at why we should be assessing our candidates and students, what benefits there are to assessment and some of the key principles of assessment. Why assess If you have just delivered a training session and you donâ„ ¢t assess, how can you be sure that any learning has taken place ?  Or if you are trying to work out a personâ„ ¢s level of skill in a particular area, how would you know whether their skill level is poor, moderate or exceptional without assessment ?  There are loads of reasons to assess such as: Determining level of knowledge understanding Ensuring that learning is taking place Checking progress Adhering to course criteria Providing a summary to learning It also never hurts if candidates and students know they are being assessed; itâ„ ¢s likely to increase their attention span and encourage them to ask about topics theyâ„ ¢re not sure of if they know that they will have to prove they have understood. For the person doing the assessing, assessment means they can be confident that the student or candidate has the required level of knowledge on a particular topic or competency for a certain task. ?  For the student or candidate, assessment usually means reassurance of their own level of knowledge / competency and usually a certificate! ?   How do we assess The first part of the assessment process is to sit down with the candidate and create a plan for their assessment. ?  The assessor has the responsibility of inducting the candidate onto the course and explaining: How they will be assessed What is going to be assessed Where they will be assessed When they will be assessed Depending on the course the assessor may help the candidate choose particular units that they are to be assessed on. The next step is to start performing the assessments and reviewing the candidateâ„ ¢s performance and knowledge. ?  One of the vital roles for the assessor is to collect and record evidence of their assessments. ?  If the assessor ever gets questioned on a decision it will be essential for them to back it up with their evidence, otherwise, itâ„ ¢s just the assessorâ„ ¢s word against the candidateâ„ ¢s! ?  This evidence must be judged against a set of criteria or standards to ensure that the candidate has the required level of knowledge or competency for the course. When a decision about a particular assessment has been reached, the candidate needs to be told about it. ?  This could be done in a yes/noâ„ ¢ or â„ ¢that was good/badâ„ ¢ way but it provides an opportunity for the assessor to give feedback and it would be a shame to waste it. ?  The purpose of giving feedback is to enhance learning. ?  It should focus on what the learner should do to improve rather than being critical and telling them what theyâ„ ¢ve done wrong. ?  It should always be given in a positive, non-judgemental manner. Once assessment decisions have been made, the assessor will be required to contribute to the quality assurance process. The function of assessment in Learning and Development Assessment can take part at different stages in Learning and Development and can sometimes be overlooked. ?  In this article, weâ„ ¢ll take a look at why we should be assessing our candidates and students, what benefits there are to assessment and some of the key principles of assessment. ?   Why assess If you have just delivered a training session and you donâ„ ¢t assess, how can you be sure that any learning has taken place ?  Or if you are trying to work out a personâ„ ¢s level of skill in a particular area, how would you know whether their skill level is poor, moderate or exceptional without assessment ?  There are loads of reasons to assess such as: Determining level of knowledge understanding Ensuring that learning is taking place Checking progress Adhering to course criteria Providing a summary to learning It also never hurts if candidates and students know they are being assessed; itâ„ ¢s likely to increase their attention span and encourage them to ask about topics theyâ„ ¢re not sure of if they know that they will have to prove they have understood. For the person doing the assessing, assessment means they can be confident that the student or candidate has the required level of knowledge on a particular topic or competency for a certain task. ?  For the student or candidate, assessment usually means reassurance of their own level of knowledge / competency and usually a certificate! ?   How do we assess The first part of the assessment process is to sit down with the candidate and create a plan for their assessment. ?  The assessor has the responsibility of inducting the candidate onto the course and explaining: How they will be assessed What is going to be assessed Where they will be assessed When they will be assessed Depending on the course the assessor may help the candidate choose particular units that they are to be assessed on. The next step is to start performing the assessments and reviewing the candidateâ„ ¢s performance and knowledge. ?  One of the vital roles for the assessor is to collect and record evidence of their assessments. ?  If the assessor ever gets questioned on a decision it will be essential for them to back it up with their evidence, otherwise, itâ„ ¢s just the assessorâ„ ¢s word against the candidateâ„ ¢s! ?  This evidence must be judged against a set of criteria or standards to ensure that the candidate has the required level of knowledge or competency for the course. When a decision about a particular assessment has been reached, the candidate needs to be told about it. ?  This could be done in a yes/noâ„ ¢ or â„ ¢that was good/badâ„ ¢ way but it provides an opportunity for the assessor to give feedback and it would be a shame to waste it. ?  The purpose of giving feedback is to enhance learning. ?  It should focus on what the learner should do to improve rather than being critical and telling them what theyâ„ ¢ve done wrong. ?  It should always be given in a positive, non-judgemental manner. Once assessment decisions have been made, the assessor will be required to contribute to the quality assurance process. The strengths and limitations of assessment methods Categories of assessment Assessments can be roughly categorised into three types which may be used at different stages of someoneâ„ ¢s training: Initial assessment Formative assessment Summative assessment The initial assessment is done before any training or other assessments take place to gauge a studentâ„ ¢s base level of knowledge or a candidateâ„ ¢s basic competency level. ?  A formative assessment is one that occurs periodically at interim points throughout the learning process. ?  A summative assessment occurs at the end of someoneâ„ ¢s training as a final assessment. ?   Methods of assessment There are loads of choices when making a decision on how to assess each with their own strengths and limitations. ?  Some types of assessment include: Question Answer sessions (both written and oral) Professional discussions Reflective accounts Role play and simulation Accredited Prior Learning Assignments Product evidence Self assessment Peer assessment Witness testimony Observations Written questioning can take the form of essays, short answer questions or multiple choice questions. ?   ?  Short and multiple choice questioning are examples of objective testing as there is only one correct answer. ?  This form of assessment is quick and easy to mark which means feedback can be given quickly to candidates. ?  Multiple choice questions can be guessed if the candidate is unsure so they might not be the best way to get an accurate measure of whether the candidate has understood something. ?  If more depth on short answer questions is required, essays can be used to assess understanding, literacy and high level comprehension although they take time for the candidates to complete and for the assessor to mark. Oral questioning can form a secondary or backup assessment method to check for comprehension. ?  They can be used to support theory while the candidate is practicing their skills or at work and they can be adapted or changed quickly depending on the situation. ?  Assessors should be careful not to used closed questions unless testing agreement. ?  Open oral questions should be used to draw out the information from the candidate. ?  An alternative to oral questioning would be a professional discussion where a candidate is asked to talk about a situation or subject regarding their work. ?  It allows for a more descriptive, structured assessment to take place. ?  An assessor should ensure they donâ„ ¢t lead the candidate in the discussion and that the learner has time to prepare for the discussion otherwise it may not flow very well. Role plays or simulations can be used to recreate a situation that a candidate may find themselves in so the assessor can determine how they would react and handle the situation. ?  A lot of candidates may resist role-play as they donâ„ ¢t want to make an idiot of themselves but the majority find it a beneficial experience although it doesnâ„ ¢t match the real thing in terms of emotions. ?   A simulation is useful when a situation could be considered dangerous or risking expensive resources. If a candidate has attended a previous training session or achieved an award or certificate in the past this can be used to support their other assessments. ?  Accredited Prior Learning assessment makes a candidate feel that any work they may have done in the past in this area wasnâ„ ¢t a waste of time. ?  This may however be time consuming for the assessor as they will need to validate the APL and not all of it may be relevant to the current criteria they are assessing. A project or assignment can give a candidate a purpose of what theyâ„ ¢re trying to learn and allows their creativity to flourish. ?  The benefit of this for both the assessor and the candidate is that it can cover a wide range of skills such as literacy, ICT skills, research skills and comprehension of the subject. ?  The assessor should ensure that if they give an assignment to a candidate they should make the learning outcomes clear to focus the candidate on what they are trying to achieve. Product evidence can be a useful assessment to support other methods. ?  Anything created or generated within the work environment can be used to backup other assessments. ?  This will only apply to candidates who have the ability to produce such evidence and the assessor should endeavour to check if it is the candidateâ„ ¢s own work or not. If an assessor gets a bit bored with doing the assessments themselves, they can get one of the candidateâ„ ¢s colleagues workmates or peersâ„ ¢ to do it for them. ?  This might help the candidate to get some informal feedback on their competencies or knowledge and perhaps some new ideas. ?  Of course, the assessor would need to verify the peer assessment as the colleague may not have the same standards or be aware of the criteria that are being assessed. ?  Another method which will allow the assessor to put their feet up and have a cup of tea is self assessment. ?  This encourages the candidate to reflect and evaluate their own competency and the candidate records this for their future reference (e.g. reviewing their own learning progress). ?  Depending on the candidate, they may find it hard to be objective about their own skills or knowledge. As long as some reliable witnesses are available, using their testimonies can be a form of assessment. ?  This can be used to summarise or validate a candidateâ„ ¢s competency perhaps at the end of a unit or complete course. ?  A witness would need to be checked for reliability by the assessor as they may be biased one way or the other to a particular candidate. Observations are an assessorâ„ ¢s primary assessment method for practical skills. ?  Itâ„ ¢s an opportunity to see the candidate in their natural work environment and see if the theory they have learnt is being applied. ?  An assessor needs to work out a way of recording these observations as they are the most likely form of evidence to be questioned by a candidate. ?  This is when the other forms of assessment can be used to support these observations. Educational assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), the institution, or the educational system as a whole. According to the Academic Exchange Quarterly: Studies of a theoretical or empirical nature (including case studies, portfolio studies, exploratory, or experimental work) addressing the assessment of learner aptitude and preparation, motivation and learning styles, learning outcomes in achievement and satisfaction in different educational contexts are all welcome, as are studies addressing issues of measurable standards and benchmarks.[1] It is important to notice that the final purposes and assessment practices in education depends on the theoretical framework of the practitioners and researchers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human mind, the origin of knowledge and the process of learning. Types The term assessment is generally used to refer to all activities teachers use to help students learn and to gauge student progress.[3] Though the notion of assessment is generally more complicated than the following categories suggest, assessment is often divided for the sake of convenience using the following distinctions: formative and summative objective and subjective referencing (criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and ipsative) informal and formal. Formative and summative Assessment is often divided into formative and summative categories for the purpose of considering different objectives for assessment practices. Summative assessment Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of a course or project. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade. Summative assessments are evaluative. Formative assessment Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a course or project. Formative assessment, also referred to as educative assessment, is used to aid learning. In an educational setting, formative assessment might be a teacher (or peer) or the learner, providing feedback on a students work, and would not necessarily be used for grading purposes. Formative assessments are diagnostic. Educational researcher Robert Stake explains the difference between formative and summative assessment with the following analogy: When the cook tastes the soup, thats formative. When the guests taste the soup, thats summative.[4] Summative and formative assessment are often referred to in a learning context as assessment of learning and assessment for learning respectively. Assessment of learning is generally summative in nature and intended to measure learning outcomes and report those outcomes to students, parents, and administrators. Assessment of learning generally occurs at the conclusion of a class, course, semester, or academic year. Assessment for learning is generally formative in nature and is used by teachers to consider approaches to teaching and next steps for individual learners and the class.[5] A common form of formative assessment is diagnostic assessment. Diagnostic assessment measures a students current knowledge and skills for the purpose of identifying a suitable program of learning. Self-assessment is a form of diagnostic assessment which involves students assessing themselves. Forward-looking assessment asks those being assessed to consider themselves in hypothetical future situations.[6] Performance-based assessment is similar to summative assessment, as it focuses on achievement. It is often aligned with the standards-based education reform and outcomes-based education movement. Though ideally they are significantly different from a traditional multiple choice test, they are most commonly associated with standards-based assessment which use free-form responses to standard questions scored by human scorers on a standards-based scale, meeting, falling below, or exceeding a performance standard rather than being ranked on a curve. A well-defined task is identified and students are asked to create, produce, or do something, often in settings that involve real-world application of knowledge and skills. Proficiency is demonstrated by providing an extended response. Performance formats are further differentiated into products and performances. The performance may result in a product, such as a painting, portfolio, paper, or exhibition, or it may consist of a performance, s uch as a speech, athletic skill, musical recital, or reading. Objective and subjective Assessment (either summative or formative) is often categorized as either objective or subjective. Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer. Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one correct answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer). There are various types of objective and subjective questions. Objective question types include true/false answers, multiple choice, multiple-response and matching questions. Subjective questions include extended-response questions and essays. Objective assessment is well suited to the increasingly popular computerized or online assessment format. Some have argued that the distinction between objective and subjective assessments is neither useful nor accurate because, in reality, there is no such thing as objective assessment. In fact, all assessments are created with inherent biases built into decisions about relevant subject matter and content, as well as cultural (class, ethnic, and gender) biases.[7] Basis of comparison Test results can be compared against an established criterion, or against the performance of other students, or against previous performance: Criterion-referenced assessment, typically using a criterion-referenced test, as the name implies, occurs when candidates are measured against defined (and objective) criteria. Criterion-referenced assessment is often, but not always, used to establish a persons competence (whether s/he can do something). The best known example of criterion-referenced assessment is the driving test, when learner drivers are measured against a range of explicit criteria (such as Not endangering other road users). Norm-referenced assessment (colloquially known as grading on the curve), typically using a norm-referenced test, is not measured against defined criteria. This type of assessment is relative to the student body undertaking the assessment. It is effectively a way of comparing students. The IQ test is the best known example of norm-referenced assessment. Many entrance tests (to prestigious schools or universities) are norm-referenced, permitting a fixed proportion of students to pass (passing in this context means being accepted into the school or university rather than an explicit level of ability). This means that standards may vary from year to year, depending on the quality of the cohort; criterion-referenced assessment does not vary from year to year (unless the criteria change).[8] Ipsative assessment is self comparison either in the same domain over time, or comparative to other domains within the same student. Informal and formal Assessment can be either formal or informal. Formal assessment usually implies a written document, such as a test, quiz, or paper. A formal assessment is given a numerical score or grade based on student performance, whereas an informal assessment does not contribute to a students final grade such as this copy and pasted discussion question. An informal assessment usually occurs in a more casual manner and may include observation, inventories, checklists, rating scales, rubrics, performance and portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self evaluation, and discussion.[9] Internal and external Internal assessment is set and marked by the school (i.e. teachers). Students get the mark and feedback regarding the assessment. External assessment is set by the governing body, and is marked by non-biased personnel. Some external assessments give much more limited feedback in their marking. However, in tests such as Australias NAPLAN, the criterion addressed by students is given detailed feedback in order for their teachers to address and compare the students learning achievements and also to plan for the future. Standards of quality In general, high-quality assessments are considered those with a high level of reliability and validity. Approaches to reliability and validity vary, however. Reliability Reliability relates to the consistency of an assessment. A reliable assessment is one which consistently achieves the same results with the same (or similar) cohort of students. Various factors affect reliability†including ambiguous questions, too many options within a question paper, vague marking instructions and poorly trained markers. Traditionally, the reliability of an assessment is based on the following: Temporal stability: Performance on a test is comparable on two or more separate occasions. Form equivalence: Performance among examinees is equivalent on different forms of a test based on the same content. Internal consistency: Responses on a test are consistent across questions. For example: In a survey that asks respondents to rate attitudes toward technology, consistency would be expected in responses to the following questions: I feel very negative about computers in general. I enjoy using computers.[10] Reliability can also be expressed in mathematical terms as: Rx = VT/Vx where Rx is the reliability in the observed (test) score, X; Vt and Vx are the variability in trueâ„ ¢ (i.e., candidateâ„ ¢s innate performance) and measured test scores respectively. The Rx can range from 0 (completely unreliable), to 1 (completely reliable). An Rx of 1 is rarely achieved, and an Rx of 0.8 is generally considered reliable. [11] Validity A valid assessment is one which measures what it is intended to measure. For example, it would not be valid to assess driving skills through a written test alone. A more valid way of assessing driving skills would be through a combination of tests that help determine what a driver knows, such as through a written test of driving knowledge, and what a driver is able to do, such as through a performance assessment of actual driving. Teachers frequently complain that some examinations do not properly assess the syllabus upon which the examination is based; they are, effectively, questioning the validity of the exam Validity of an assessment is generally gauged through examination of evidence in the following categories: Content â€Å" Does the content of the test measure stated objectives Criterion â€Å" Do scores correlate to an outside reference (ex: Do high scores on a 4th grade reading test accurately predict reading skill in future grades) Construct â€Å" Does the assessment correspond to other significant variables (ex: Do ESL students consistently perform differently on a writing exam than native English speakers)[12] Face â€Å" Does the item or theory make sense, and is it seemingly correct to the expert reader[13] A good assessment has both validity and reliability, plus the other quality attributes noted above for a specific context and purpose. In practice, an assessment is rarely totally valid or totally reliable. A ruler which is marked wrong will always give the same (wrong) measurements. It is very reliable, but not very valid. Asking random individuals to tell the time without looking at a clock or watch is sometimes used as an example of an assessment which is valid, but not reliable. The answers will vary between individuals, but the average answer is probably close to the actual time. In many fields, such as medical research, educational testing, and psychology, there will often be a trade-off between reliability and validity. A history test written for high validity will have many essay and fill-in-the-blank questions. It will be a good measure of mastery of the subject, but difficult to score completely accurately. A history test written for high reliability will be entirely multip le choice. It isnt as good at measuring knowledge of history, but can easily be scored with great precision. We may generalize from this. The more reliable our estimate is of what we purport to measure, the less certain we are that we are actually measuring that aspect of attainment. It is also important to note that there are at least thirteen sources of invalidity, which can be estimated for individual students in test situations. They never are. Perhaps this is because their social purpose demands the absence of any error, and validity errors are usually so high that they would destabilize the whole assessment industry. It is well to distinguish between subject-matter validity and predictive validity. The former, used widely in education, predicts the score a student would get on a similar test but with different questions. The latter, used widely in the workplace, predicts performance. Thus, a subject-matter-valid test of knowledge of driving rules is appropriate while a predictively-valid test would assess whether the potential driver could follow those rules. Testing standards In the field of psychometrics, the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing[14] place standards about validity and reliability, along with errors of measurement and related considerations under the general topic of test construction, evaluation and documentation. The second major topic covers standards related to fairness in testing, including fairness in testing and test use, the rights and responsibilities of test takers, testing individuals of diverse linguistic backgrounds, and testing individuals with disabilities. The third and final major topic covers standards related to testing applications, including the responsibilities of test users, psychological testing and assessment, educational testing and assessment, testing in employment and credentialing, plus testing in program evaluation and public policy. Evaluation standards In the field of evaluation, and in particular educational evaluation, the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation[15] has published three sets of standards for evaluations. The Personnel Evaluation Standards[16] was published in 1988, The Program Evaluation Standards (2nd edition)[17] was published in 1994, and The Student Evaluation Standards[18] was published in 2003. Each publication presents and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing and improving the identified form of evaluation. Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability considerations are covered under the accuracy topic. For example, the student accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance. In classrooms where assessment for learning is practiced, students know at the outset of a unit of study what they are expected to learn. At the beginning of the unit, the teacher will work with the student to understand what she or he already knows about the topic as well as to identify any gaps or misconceptions (initial/diagnostic assessment). As the unit progresses, the teacher and student work together to assess the studentâ„ ¢s knowledge, what she or he needs to learn to improve and extend this knowledge, and how the student can best get to that point (formative assessment). Assessment for learning occurs at all stages of the learning process. Researchers whose work has informed much of this assessment reform include Ken Oâ„ ¢Connor, Grant Wiggins[1], Jay McTighe[2], Richard Stiggins[3], Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam, Thomas Guskey, Damian Cooper[4] and Ronan Howe. Historical Perspective In past decades, teachers would design a unit of study that would typically include objectives, teaching strategies, and resources. An evaluation component†the test or examination†may or may not have been included as part of this design (Cooper, 2006). The studentâ„ ¢s mark on this test or exam was taken as the indicator of his or her understanding of the topic. Definitions There are a number of assessment terms that will appear in any discussion of assessment. Listed below are common interpretations of some of these terms: Assessment A working definition of Assessment for learning from a widely cited article contends: the term assessmentâ„ ¢ refers to all those activities undertaken by teachers, and by their students in assessing themselves, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged.[1] Since this seminal article, educators have differentiated assessment according to its purpose: Assessment for learning comprises two phases†initial or diagnostic assessment and formative assessment assessment can be based on a variety of information sources (e.g., portfolios, works in progress, teacher observation, conversation) verbal or written feedback to the student is primarily descriptive and emphasizes strengths, identifies challenges, and points to next steps as teachers check on understanding they adjust their instruction to keep students on track no grades or scores are given record-keeping is primarily anecdotal and descriptive occurs throughout the learning process, from the outset of the course of study to the time of summative assessment Assessment as learning begins as students become aware of the goals of instruction and the criteria for performance involves goal-setting, monitoring progress, and reflecting on results implies student ownership and responsibility for moving his or her thinking forward (metacognition) occurs throughout the learning process Assessment of learning assessment that is accompanied by a number or letter grade (summative) compares one studentâ„ ¢s achievement with standards results can be communicated to the student and parents occurs at the end of the learning unit Evaluation judgment made on the basis of a studentâ„ ¢s performance Diagnostic assessment (now referred to more often as pre-assessment) assessment made to determine what a student does and does not know about a topic assessment made to determine a students learning style or preferences used to determine how well a student can perform a certain set of skills related to a particular subject or group of subjects occurs at the beginning of a unit of study used to inform instruction:makes up the initial phase of assessment for learning Formative assessment assessment made to determine a studentâ„ ¢s knowledge and skills, including learning gaps as they progress through a unit of study used to inform instruction and guide learning occurs during the course of a unit of study makes up the subsequent phase of assessment for learning Summative assessment assessment that is made at the end of a unit of study to determine the level of understanding the student has achieved includes a mark or grade against an expected standard Principles of Assessment for Learning Among the most comprehensive listing of principles of assessment for learning are those written by the QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority)[5]. The authority, which is sponsored by Englandâ„ ¢s Department for Children, Schools and Families, is responsible for national curriculum, assessment, and examinations. Their principal focus on crucial aspects of assessment for learning, including how such assessment should be seen as central to classroom practice, and that all teachers should regard assessment for learning as a key professional skill. The UK Assessment Reform Group (1999) identifies The big 5 principles of assessment for learning 1. The provision of effective feedback to students. 2. The active involvement of students in their own learning. 3. Adjusting teaching to take account of the results of assessment. 4. Recognition of the profound influence assessment has on the motivation and self esteem of pupils, both of which are critical influences on learning. 5. The need for students to be able to assess themselves and understand how to improve. Feedback The purpose of an Assessment for Learning (AFL) task is to provide feedback to both the teacher and learner regarding the learners progress towards achieving the learning objective(s). This feedback should be used by the teacher to revise and develop further instruction. An effective AFL method is to use a performance task coupled with a rubric. This type of assessment is fundamental in illustrating how and why such principles need to be adhered to.